The sonnet is one of the most beloved and enduring forms of poetry in the literary tradition. From its Italian origins in the 13th century to its widespread use by major poets in various languages, the sonnet has remained a vibrant and versatile vehicle for the expression of emotion, intellect, and artistry. This article will delve into the tradition of the sonnet, examining its origins, structural elements, evolution, and the ways in which it has been used to reflect cultural, personal, and philosophical themes. Through this exploration, we will uncover the reasons for its lasting appeal and why the sonnet continues to inspire poets and readers alike.
The Origins of the Sonnet
The word “sonnet” comes from the Italian word sonetto, meaning “a little sound” or “a little song.” The sonnet form was first popularized in Italy during the 13th century by the poet Giacomo da Lentini, who is often credited with creating the structure. However, it was the poet Petrarch (1304–1374) who gave the sonnet its lasting identity through his influential collection of poems, Canzoniere (Songbook), which set the standard for sonnet writing in Europe.
Petrarch’s sonnets were primarily written in the form now known as the Petrarchan or Italian sonnet. His poems, most often centered on themes of unattainable love and spiritual yearning, became a model for poets throughout Europe. In his work, the structure of the sonnet became refined: fourteen lines, divided into an octave (the first eight lines) and a sestet (the last six lines), with a specific rhyme scheme. This structure would form the foundation of sonnet writing in both Italy and beyond.
The influence of the Petrarchan sonnet spread quickly through Europe, with many poets adopting and adapting the form. In England, poets like Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, helped bring the sonnet into the English literary tradition in the 16th century.
The Structure of the Sonnet
At the heart of the sonnet is its structure, a distinctive and rigid framework that dictates the organization of lines and rhymes. Although poets have experimented with and varied these elements over time, the core characteristics of the sonnet have remained largely unchanged. Let’s take a closer look at the traditional structures that define the sonnet.
Fourteen Lines
A sonnet is composed of exactly fourteen lines. This fixed number of lines sets the sonnet apart from other poetic forms and contributes to its sense of completeness and unity. Each line traditionally follows a specific meter, which adds to the rhythm and musicality of the poem.
Meter
The most common meter used in sonnets is iambic pentameter. This means that each line is made up of ten syllables, with the stress pattern alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables (i.e., da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM). The use of iambic pentameter provides a smooth and rhythmic flow to the poem, making it pleasing to the ear and conducive to the expression of nuanced thoughts and emotions.
Rhyme Scheme
The rhyme scheme of a sonnet is a defining feature and varies depending on the type of sonnet being used. There are three primary types of sonnets: the Petrarchan (Italian) sonnet, the Shakespearean (English) sonnet, and the Spenserian sonnet. Each type has its own specific rhyme scheme.
Petrarchan Sonnet (Italian Sonnet): The Petrarchan sonnet is divided into two parts: the octave (eight lines) and the sestet (six lines). The rhyme scheme for the octave is typically ABBAABBA, while the sestet can vary but most commonly follows either CDCDCD or CDECDE.
Shakespearean Sonnet (English Sonnet): The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four-line stanzas) followed by a rhymed couplet (two lines). The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. This structure allows for a development of ideas and a conclusion or resolution in the final couplet.
Spenserian Sonnet: This variant of the Shakespearean sonnet was developed by Edmund Spenser and uses the rhyme scheme ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. The interlocking rhymes between the quatrains give the poem a more interconnected and flowing feel.
The Volta
A defining feature of the sonnet is the “volta,” which means “turn” in Italian. The volta is a shift or change in the poem’s argument, tone, or perspective. In a Petrarchan sonnet, the volta typically occurs at the ninth line (the start of the sestet), while in Shakespearean sonnets, it may occur at the beginning of the third quatrain or the final couplet. The volta serves as a pivotal moment in the poem, often revealing a new insight or conclusion to the idea or argument being presented.
The Evolution of the Sonnet
While the sonnet’s origins lie in Italy, its influence quickly spread throughout Europe. In particular, the sonnet found a prominent place in English literature, where it was used by some of the most renowned poets in history.
The English Sonnet
The English or Shakespearean sonnet was developed in England during the 16th century. Sir Thomas Wyatt is often credited with introducing the sonnet to English poetry. He adapted the Petrarchan form to fit the English language, but it was the work of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, that solidified the English sonnet’s distinctive structure.
Shakespeare’s use of the sonnet form is perhaps the most famous and widely studied. His 154 sonnets explore themes of love, beauty, time, and mortality. Shakespeare’s mastery of the sonnet allowed him to push the boundaries of the form, experimenting with the volta and the rhyme scheme in innovative ways. His sonnets are celebrated for their deep emotional resonance and philosophical depth.
The Spenserian Sonnet
Edmund Spenser’s innovation in sonnet form came with the introduction of the Spenserian sonnet, which features a more interwoven rhyme scheme than the Shakespearean sonnet. His Amoretti sonnet sequence is a prime example of his adaptation of the form. Spenser’s work, often romantic in nature, influenced later poets like John Milton.
The Romantic and Victorian Sonnets
In the 19th century, the sonnet saw a resurgence as poets like William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti embraced the form. Romantic poets used the sonnet to express deep personal emotion, nature, and the sublime, while Victorian poets explored more moral and social themes. The strict form of the sonnet became an ideal vehicle for exploring complex ideas in a compressed and controlled manner.
Modern and Contemporary Sonnets
In the 20th and 21st centuries, poets began to break from the traditional sonnet form. While the fourteen-line structure and iambic pentameter remained important to some, others experimented with free verse or modified the rhyme scheme and meter. Poets like W. B. Yeats, T. S. Eliot, and Edna St. Vincent Millay pushed the boundaries of what a sonnet could be, while still maintaining an essential respect for its traditions.
Contemporary sonneteers continue to honor the form while adding personal and political elements. The traditional volta might be used as a thematic or emotional pivot, but modern poets often imbue the form with fresh perspectives, reflecting their own voices and concerns. Contemporary sonnets may deal with issues like identity, social justice, and personal conflict, showing that the sonnet is as versatile and relevant as ever.
Thematic Versatility of the Sonnet
One of the reasons the sonnet has endured for so long is its remarkable thematic versatility. The form’s compact nature allows poets to express a wide range of emotions, ideas, and experiences. While many sonnets focus on love, the sonnet can also serve as a medium for exploring themes such as time, death, nature, religion, beauty, and politics.
Love and Desire
The sonnet’s most enduring association is with love. From Petrarch’s idealized, unattainable love for Laura to Shakespeare’s exploration of both the joys and sorrows of love, the sonnet has long been a means of expressing deep affection, longing, and heartbreak. The form’s rigid structure reflects the constriction of desire, while the volta often marks a shift in the emotional trajectory of the poem, revealing a twist in the poet’s perception of love.
Nature and the Sublime
In the Romantic period, poets like William Wordsworth and Percy Bysshe Shelley used the sonnet to explore the beauty and power of nature. The fixed structure of the sonnet allowed them to convey the complexity of nature’s impact on the human spirit. The volta, often signaling a change in perspective, allowed for a transition from the natural world to the personal or philosophical realm.
Time and Mortality
Time and mortality are central themes in many sonnets. Shakespeare’s sonnets, in particular, deal with the passage of time and the inevitability of death. In the traditional sonnet, the volta often introduces a contemplation of time’s destructive power and the possibility of immortality through poetry. This theme resonates in the modern era, where poets continue to address the transient nature of human existence.
Political and Social Themes
In more recent years, poets have used the sonnet as a form for political and social commentary. The compactness of the sonnet allows for sharp, incisive commentary, and the volta provides a space for reflection and critique. Poets like Agha Shahid Ali and others have used the sonnet to address issues such as war, identity, and oppression, demonstrating the form’s adaptability in the face of contemporary concerns.
Conclusion
The sonnet has undergone significant transformations since its creation in the 13th century, but its tradition remains robust. Its rigid structure and distinct rhyme schemes have served as the foundation for centuries of poetic expression, and its thematic versatility ensures that it continues to captivate and inspire poets today. Whether in the hands of Petrarch, Shakespeare, or contemporary poets, the sonnet remains a timeless form that captures the complexities of human experience.
Through its rich history and continued evolution, the sonnet has proven to be more than just a poetic form; it is a tradition that reflects the ongoing dialogue between the poet, the language, and the world around them. The sonnet tradition is a testament to the enduring power of poetry as a means of personal and collective expression.
