Welcome to Poem of the Day – Absalom and Achitophel by John Dryden.
John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681) is one of the most famous and politically charged satirical poems in English literature. Written during a time of political turbulence in England, it is an allegory that responds to the crisis of the Exclusion Crisis, a political struggle surrounding the potential succession of James, Duke of York, as King of England. Through its vivid characters, intricate allegorical structure, and sharp critique of contemporary politics, Dryden’s poem offers a profound commentary on power, rebellion, loyalty, and corruption.
Absalom and Achitophel Explanation
1. Historical and Political Context of Absalom and Achitophel
To understand the full significance of Absalom and Achitophel, it is essential to consider the political climate in which Dryden wrote. The Exclusion Crisis of 1679–1681 revolved around the question of whether the Catholic Duke of York (later James II) should be allowed to succeed his brother, King Charles II, on the English throne. Protestant factions feared the establishment of Catholicism in England, and the Exclusion Bill sought to bar James from the throne.
Dryden, a supporter of the royalist cause, wrote Absalom and Achitophel in response to the political faction that opposed James’s succession. The poem is a thinly veiled political satire in which Dryden uses biblical allegory to criticize the opposition, personified in the figure of Absalom, the rebellious son, and Achitophel, the treacherous counselor.
2. The Allegory of Absalom and Achitophel
The poem’s central allegory revolves around the biblical story of Absalom, the rebellious son of King David, who seeks to usurp his father’s throne. Dryden adapts this biblical tale to comment on the political situation in England. In the poem, Absalom represents the figure of the popular, rebellious Whig politician, while King David is a representation of King Charles II. Achitophel, the traitorous counselor, serves as a stand-in for prominent political figures in the opposition, particularly the Earl of Shaftesbury, who was a key leader in the campaign against the Duke of York’s succession.
Dryden’s use of the Absalom and David story allows him to draw on well-established themes of loyalty, rebellion, and divine justice, all of which serve to underscore his royalist beliefs. By turning the story into a political allegory, Dryden invites readers to understand the Whigs as rebellious and treacherous figures, while simultaneously portraying the monarchy as divinely ordained and inherently just.
Absalom: The Popular Rebellious Son
Absalom in Dryden’s poem is portrayed as a young, charismatic figure, much like the popular Whig leader who gains support from the people. However, his beauty and charm are shown to be superficial, masking his treacherous nature. The physical attractiveness of Absalom in the poem, with his long hair and striking appearance, serves as a metaphor for the populist appeal of the Whig cause, which, while captivating, ultimately undermines the stability of the state:
“In that the profligate, whose fatal fate
Already is pronounced, and duly met,
Not the least spark of sense or grace remains.”
Absalom’s rebellion is framed not as a noble struggle for justice, but as an act of pride and ambition. Dryden underscores this by describing Absalom’s motives as personal, driven by a desire for power rather than any genuine concern for the welfare of the people. His rebellion is not justified by principle, but by self-interest.
Achitophel: The Treacherous Counselor
Achitophel, the crafty advisor who persuades Absalom to rebel against his father, represents the political figures who seek to manipulate the public for their own gain. In the case of the Exclusion Crisis, this is clearly a reference to the Earl of Shaftesbury, who was a key proponent of the Exclusion Bill. Dryden paints Achitophel as a scheming, morally corrupt figure, who is not motivated by genuine concern for the nation but by his own ambitions:
“In this ungrateful world, his pride,
In all the public virtues, his divine.”
Achitophel’s actions represent the manipulative tactics often employed by politicians who use populism to advance their own political agendas. He is portrayed as a manipulator of public opinion, able to convince others to pursue rebellion for his own benefit. In this way, Dryden critiques those who use the popular discontent to disrupt the stability of the state and undermine the legitimacy of the monarchy.
King David: The Divine Right of Kings
In stark contrast to Absalom and Achitophel stands King David, who represents King Charles II. David is depicted as a wise, patient ruler, despite the rebelliousness of his son and the treachery of his counselor. Dryden’s portrayal of David reflects the royalist belief in the divine right of kings, the idea that monarchs are chosen by God to rule, and that their authority cannot be challenged by rebellion. David’s strength lies not in force but in his moral superiority and patience in waiting for divine justice:
“David, though now in years, with princely grace,
Could by his age sustain that weighty case.”
David’s authority is presented as divinely sanctioned, and Dryden insists that it is the natural order of things for the king to rule, no matter the threat posed by rebellious factions like Absalom and Achitophel. The poem critiques those who challenge the throne, positioning them as enemies of order and justice.
3. The Role of the People: Loyalty and the Divine Right of Kings
One of the key themes in Absalom and Achitophel is the tension between divine law and popular sovereignty. The poem suggests that the people must remain loyal to the throne, recognizing that the king’s authority is not granted by popular election but by divine right. Dryden’s criticism of the rebellion is not limited to Absalom and Achitophel alone; he also chastises the masses who are easily swayed by populist rhetoric:
“For who can blame the eager crowd,
For who can blame the headstrong crowds,
So easily led to battle, when so well they lead?”
This line points to the dangers of the masses, who are depicted as easily manipulated by figures like Achitophel. Dryden uses the allegory to express his belief that loyalty to the king—rather than popular uprising—is the key to maintaining political order.
4. The Poem as Political Satire
Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is a masterclass in political satire. By using biblical allegory to comment on the political realities of his time, Dryden is able to criticize the opposition without directly attacking individuals. Instead, he uses the biblical figures to critique the moral decay and disloyalty of the Whig faction. At the same time, he presents the monarchy as the natural and divinely ordained order, warning against the dangers of rebellion.
Dryden’s satire also targets the character of Achitophel and his manipulation of the masses. He criticizes the tactics of political factions who use populism to undermine authority, portraying Achitophel as a manipulative figure who sows discord for personal gain. This reflection on the dangers of political ambition and the disruption of social order would have resonated strongly with Dryden’s royalist audience, who feared the erosion of the monarchy’s authority.
5. Literary Style: Mastery of Heroic Couplet and Political Allegory
Dryden’s use of the heroic couplet (iambic pentameter with rhymed couplets) in Absalom and Achitophel is highly effective in maintaining both the grandeur and the satirical tone of the poem. The heroic couplet, which had become the dominant form in Restoration poetry, serves to heighten the formality and gravity of the political themes while also allowing for the sharp wit and irony necessary for satire.
Dryden’s command of language and skill in crafting complex allegories is also evident in the way he intertwines classical references, biblical allusions, and political commentary. The poem’s structure, with its multiple speakers and layers of meaning, allows for a nuanced exploration of political themes without reducing the complexity of the issues at hand.
Conclusion
Absalom and Achitophel is a rich and layered political allegory that remains one of John Dryden’s greatest achievements. Through his masterful use of biblical allegory, satire, and the heroic couplet, Dryden critiques the political factions that opposed the monarchy while defending the divine right of kings. The poem provides a powerful commentary on rebellion, loyalty, and the moral complexities of political life, making it a timeless work of literature. By examining the characters of Absalom, Achitophel, and King David, Dryden highlights the dangers of political ambition, the fickleness of public opinion, and the necessity of maintaining stability and order within the state.
